Colombie

La Colombie, officiellement la République de Colombie (en espagnol República de Colombia), est un pays situé au Nord-Ouest de l'Amérique du Sud. Elle est l'unique pays d'Amérique du Sud doté de côtes sur l'océan Pacifique et la mer des caraïbes. Sa capitale est Bogotá, sa langue nationale est l'espagnol et sa monnaie est le peso. La Colombie est le troisième plus grand pays hispanophone au monde après le Mexique et l'Espagne.

Histoire

Les colonisateurs espagnols arrivèrent dans cette région aux alentours de 1500, y trouvant les tribus indigènes Chibchas (ou Muiscas) et les Taironas, lesquelles furent décimées et conquises. Les Espagnols y ont implanté diverses colonies, qui, plus tard, furent converties en provinces fondant la Nouvelle-Grenade comme noyau au tout début et, à partir de 1717, comme vice-royauté. Cette vice-royauté incluait diverses provinces qui avaient appartenu jusqu'à ce moment à la juridiction des vice-royautés de la Nouvelle Espagne et du Pérou.
Le mouvement indépendantiste débuta en 1810, mené en grande partie par Simón Bolívar et Francisco de Paula Santander, et triompha en 1819. Le territoire qui était alors connu comme étant la vice-royauté de Nouvelle-Grenade, fut converti en République Fédérale de la Grande Colombie suite à la Bataille de Boyacá (le 7 août 1819).
Les divisions au sein du pouvoir interne conduisirent en 1830 à la séparation des départements qui composaient la Grande Colombie : le Venezuela, l'Équateur et la Colombie. À la suite de cette séparation, Cundinamarca prit le nom de Nouvelle-Grenade jusqu'en 1886 où il prit le nom actuel de République de Colombie. Ces divisions internes demeurèrent, déclenchant ainsi une guerre civile qui aboutit à la sécession de Panamá en 1903, avec l'ingérence des États-Unis.
En 1948, l’assassinat à Bogota du dirigeant de gauche Jorge Eliecer Gaitan provoque une guerre civile - La Violencia - entre les deux forces politiques qui se partagent le pouvoir, libéraux et conservateurs. Cela va durer huit ans (1948-1957) et provoquer près de trois cent mille morts[1].
La réconciliation des libéraux et des conservateurs ne se traduit pas par un programme de développement social et de réduction des inégalités. Plusieurs groupes armés refusent, en conséquence, de rendre les armes.
Depuis les années 1960, la Colombie connait donc un conflit armé impliquant des guérillas telles que les Forces armées révolutionnaires de Colombie (FARC) ou l'Ejército de Liberación Nacional (ELN) et des groupes paramilitaires d'extrême-droite, mis sur pied par les grands propriétaires terriens, comme les Autodéfenses unies de Colombie (AUC) où les Águilas Negras (Aigles Noirs), désormais rassemblés au sein d’une seule organisation (AUC), afin d’être reconnus comme de véritables acteurs politiques.

Culture

La culture colombienne a subi une grande influence de la culture espagnole, la religion, la danse, la musique et dans la vie quotidienne.
La religion catholique tient une place très importante dans la culture colombienne. En effet, la grande majorité des colombiens sont catholiques, et près de 40% d'entre-eux sont pratiquants.
Le mélange des cultures espagnole, africaine, et amérindienne ont modelé la façon de vivre des colombiens. Ainsi, la salsa cubaine est également la danse la plus populaire en Colombie. Le flamenco et la cuisine espagnole sont très répandus dans le pays.
L'influence culturelle américaine se ressent fortement en Colombie. La jeunesse colombienne s'est beaucoup "américanisée" depuis les années 90, écoutant la pop music des Etats-Unis et regardant les émissions télévisées américaines. Le pays est émmetteur de la chaine CNN. La Colombie est, par exemple, le troisième pays possédant le plus de restaurants Mc Donalds en Amérique du Sud, derrière le Brésil et l'Argentine.

Netherlands

Netherlands, or often called Holland (Holland) or is the official name is. Kingdom of the Netherlands (Kingdom of the Netherlands) a derivation of the word "Neder" or "low" because the terrain is mostly plains of the Netherlands. And about one in four regions of the country below sea level. The Netherlands has region by adjusting pump water from lakes and different to take advantage. The Netherlands is the dam and drainage pumping station number. Area to prevent about half of the country experiencing flood conditions. Netherlands have all construction engineering, water management, the largest in the world.

Terrain is plains. Most areas have a sea before, so this country is lower than sea level. Only in the southeast area Lim Blakemore. Only he can see hills. Rhine River flowing from Germany. River is an important line of the country. Because the country is below sea level, causing build dams. In order to prevent sea water flowing at flood. Because the Netherlands is located in the North Sea coast. Has been influenced by the warm currents. Make the country's warm climate than other countries in Europe. And frequent rain during the spring and fall as much as 700 millimeters per year.

Native Netherlands. Specializes in commercial long. And trade with neighboring countries nearby. And trade with countries in other regions of the world. Cause of this expertise has various components together is important in the Netherlands. Has several important rivers flow from many countries in Europe. To embark on his country. Allow cities of the Netherlands. Become a major port is the port forward Rotterdam (Rotterdam), a major port and important in international trade of most of the world is open to people of the Netherlands, conduct commerce with ease.

Scotland

Scotland (Gaelic: Alba) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the southwest. In addition to the mainland, Scotland consists of over 790 islands including the Northern Isles and the Hebrides.
Edinburgh, the country's capital and second largest city, is one of Europe's largest financial centres. Edinburgh was the hub of the Scottish Enlightenment of the 18th century, which transformed Scotland into one of the commercial, intellectual and industrial powerhouses of Europe. Glasgow, Scotland's largest city, was once one of the world's leading industrial cities and now lies at the centre of the Greater Glasgow conurbation. Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union.
The Kingdom of Scotland was an independent sovereign state before 1 May 1707 when it entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England to create the united Kingdom of Great Britain. This union resulted from the Treaty of Union agreed in 1706 and enacted by the twin Acts of Union passed by the Parliaments of both countries, despite widespread protest across Scotland.Scotland's legal system continues to be separate from those of England, Wales, and Northern Ireland and Scotland still constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in public and in private law. The continued independence of Scots law, the Scottish education system, and the Church of Scotland have all contributed to the continuation of Scottish culture and Scottish national identity since the Union. Although Scotland is no longer a separate sovereign state, issues surrounding devolution and independence continue to be debated. After the creation of the devolved Scottish Parliament in 1999, the first ever pro-independence Scottish Government was elected in 2007.

Switzerland

Switzerland (German: die Schweiz[8] French: la Suisse, Italian: Svizzera, Romansh: Svizra), officially the Swiss Confederation (Confoederatio Helvetica in Latin, hence its ISO country codes CH and CHE), is a federal republic consisting of 26 states named cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in Western Europe where it is bordered by Germany to the north, France to the west, Italy to the south and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east.
Switzerland is a landlocked country whose territory is geographically divided between the Jura, the Central Plateau and the Alps; adding together an area of 41,285 km². The approximately 7.7 million people concentrate mostly on the Plateau, where the largest cities are to be found. Among them the two global cities and economic centres of Zürich and Geneva. Switzerland is one of the richest countries in the world by per capita gross domestic product, with a nominal per capita GDP of $67,384. Zürich and Geneva have respectively been ranked as having the second and third highest quality of life in the world.
The Swiss Confederation has a long history of neutrality—it has not been at war internationally since 1815—and was one of the last countries to join the United Nations. Switzerland is home to many international organisations, including the WEF, the Red Cross, the World Trade Organization and the second largest UN office. On the European level it was a founder of the European Free Trade Association and is part of the Schengen Agreement.
Switzerland comprises three main linguistic and cultural regions: German, French, Italian, to which are added the Romansh-speaking valleys. The Swiss therefore do not form a nation in the sense of a common ethnic or linguistic identity. The strong sense of belonging to the country is founded on the common historical background, shared values (federalism, direct democracy, neutrality) and Alpine symbolism. The establishment of the Swiss Confederation is traditionally dated to 1 August 1291; Swiss National Day is celebrated on the anniversary

Poland

Poland (Rzeczpospolita Polska), is a country in Central Europe. Poland is bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north. The total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres (120,726 sq mi),[2] making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. Poland has a population of over 38 million people,[2] which makes it the 34th most populous country in the world[4] and the most populous Eastern European Member State of the EU.
The establishment of a Polish state is often identified with the adoption of Christianity by its ruler Mieszko I, in 966 (see Baptism of Poland), when the state covered territory similar to that of present-day Poland. In 1025, Poland became a kingdom and in 1569, it cemented a long association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, by signing the Union of Lublin, forming the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Commonwealth collapsed in 1795 and Poland's territory was partitioned among the Kingdom of Prussia, the Russian Empire, and Austria. Poland regained its independence as the Second Polish Republic in 1918, after World War I, but was later occupied by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union during World War II. Poland lost over six million citizens in World War II, emerging several years later as the socialist People's Republic of Poland within the Eastern Bloc, under strong Soviet influence.
During the Revolutions of 1989, communist rule was overthrown and Poland became what is constitutionally known as the "Third Polish Republic". Poland is a unitary state, made up of sixteen voivodeships (Polish: województwo). Poland is also a member of the European Union, NATO, United Nations, World Trade Organization, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).